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Kumārajīva 鳩摩羅什 (343-413)

1.At the beginning of the fifth century, Kumārajīva, one of the greatest translators in the Chinese Buddhist history, came to Changan. This marks the new beginning of Buddhist translation. Although there are four great translators in Chinese Buddhist history according to tradition, but only Kumārajīva and Xuanzangare important.

2.The name of Kumārajīva was known to the Chinese Buddhists before his arrival asDaoan requested the ruler of Former Qin, Fujian, to invite Kumārajīva and Fujian himself also loved intellectual people, which resulted in Luguang’s 呂光campaign to Kucha.

The time before coming to Changan

3.Kumārajīva was born in Kucha 龜茲of a Brahmin father from India and a Kuchean princess. It is said that Kumārajīva’s father was a prince who gave up his power and became a monk. However, when he travelled to Kucha, the king asked him to assist his rule and gave him the king’s sister who became Kumārajīva’s mother.

4.Kumārajīva entered the Order at the age of seven when his mother became a nun.At the age of nine, Kumārajīva followed her and came to Kashmir where he studied Sarvāstivāda doctrine and ?gamasunder the famous master Bandhudatta for three years.

5.Then the mother and son went to Kashgar 疏勒 where at the beginning Kumārajīva also studied the Hīnayāna schools, but later he changed his direction and studied the Indian Vedas and books on astronomy,mathematics and Indian literature etc.until he met a famous Mahāyāna teacher Sūryasoma須利耶蘇摩.

6.It is under Sūryasoma須利耶蘇摩that Kumārajīva studied the Mahāyāna teachings of Madhyamika.

7.After one year, Kumārajīva returned to Kucha and concentrated on the study of Mahāyāna and at the same time he got his higher ordination at the age of twenty.

8.By this time Kumārajīva already became a well known Buddhist teacher of MahāyānaBuddhism and his fame spread to other Central Asian kingdoms.He lectured on the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (GuangzhaJing光贊經) and the king of Kucha came to attend his lectures.

9.In 379, the fame of Kumārajīva reached China when a Chinese monk who returned fromKucha and in 382 Fujian sent Luguang 呂光witha strong army to fight Kucha in order to get Kumārajīva.

10.In the year 384, Luguang defeated the Kucha army and captured Kumārajīva who was forced and married the daughter of the Kucha.

11.However,in 383, Fujian carried out a campaign against the Eastern Jin in order to conquer it in spite the strong opposition. However, Fujian was defeated at the battle of Feishui although he led a large army. It was because this battle, the Former Qin collapsed and the Latter Qin was established.

12.Upon hearing the news on his return in 384, Luguang stopped at Liangzhouand established his own kingdom named Latter Liang後涼. However, he kept Kumārajīvaas his advisor but he did not allow him to perform any Buddhist activities since Luguang was not a Buddhist.

13.Kumārajīva stayed at Liangzhou for over many years and it was here he learned Chinese language.

14.In 394, Yaoxing 姚興conquered the Former Qinand established the Latter Qin. Yaoxing姚興 was also a Buddhist follower who sent out an army and defeated Luguang. So Kumārajīva was invited to Changan in 401.

The time at Changan

15. Kumārajīvawas treated quite well by Yaoxing 姚興who took him as the state teacher and invited him to stay in the royal palace in Changan.

16. Yaoxing was a great king who advocated Confucian and Buddhiststudies and invited intellectual people to his kingdom. So his emphasis was on the exegesis of Buddhist sūtras rather than construction of monasteries and stupas. Thus Changan became a centre of cultural activities that attracted many people and influenced the Eastern Jin as well as Central Asia and India.

17.Second,Yaoxing organized state sponsored translation committees for Kumārajīva who immediately started his translation. At this time many people came to learn under him and many monks became the disseminators of theories.

18.With Kumārajīva’s coming, many people came to Changan to study under him.There were around 800 Buddhist monks in his translation committee and among whom Sengqi 僧契,Sengda 僧達, Faqing 法欽, Daoliu 道流,Daoheng 道恒, Daobiao 道標, Sengrui 僧叡,and Sengzhao 僧肇 were the foremost. And Yaoxing himself also personally attended his translation conferences.

19.According to his biography, there were more 5,000 monks and nuns and altogether there were more 300,000 people who studied under Kumārajīva.

20.Kumārajīva was not simply performing translations, but he also lectured on the sūtras when he translated it. Therefore, it is said that Kumārajīva was often holding a Sanskrit text and translated it so that people attended the translation and listened to his teaching.

Translation

21.From402 to 413, Kumārajīva translated many texts, but now there are only 39 texts in 313 fascicles in extant. These texts are divided into two groups:

22.The first is a group of texts translated on the demand of monks and lay people in Changan for the need of time. However, this group also includes some Prajñāpāramitātexts such as.

Pañcavi??atisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā-sūtra《摩訶般若波羅蜜經》 in 404, a text similar to the Fangguang Jing 《放光經》 and the Guangzhan Jing 《光贊經》.

Prajñāpāramitā-sūtra《小品般若波羅蜜經》 in 408, a version of the A??asāhasrikā, similar to the Daoxing Jing 《道行般若經》and the Damingduwuji Jing 《大明度無极經》,

Vajracchedikā Sūtra 《金剛般若經》, the Diamond Sūtra.

There are also other texts on Mahāyāna meditation:

?ūra?gamasamādhi-sūtra《佛說首楞嚴三昧經》,

ZhuochanSanmei Jing 《坐禪三昧經》, a text for meditation,

ChanfaYaojian 《禪法要解》, a brief explanation of meditation.

Other texts

Maitreya-vyākara?a-sūtra《佛說彌勒下生成佛經》(Second translation)

Saddharmapu??arīka-sūtra 《妙法蓮華經》(Second translation)

Vimalakīrtinirde?a-sūtra《維摩詰所說經》(Second translation)

Satyasiddhi-?āstra《成實論》 by Harivarman

23.the second group is what Kumārajīva intended to introduce; the teaching and thought of Nāgārjuna and his disciple Aryadeva:

Madhyamaka-?āstra (Zhong lun 《中論》) by Nāgārjuna 龍樹

Dvāda?anikāya-?āstra (Shiermen lun 《十二門論》) by Nāgārjuna龍樹

?ata-?āstra (Bai lun《百論》) by his disciple Aryadeva 提婆

Mahāprajñāpāramitā-?āstra《大智度論》 attrib. Nāgārjuna 龍樹

24.Kumārajīva also retranslated a lot of sūtras done by others before him because these were not good translations.

25.Kumārajīva’s translations are the milestonein the whole history of the Chinese Buddhist translation. Overall, his translations are clear and simple and easy to read. Themeaning of the texts is explicit. As a result, compared with other translators, Kumārajīva’s translations are widely circulated and influential in Chinese Buddhist circles.

26.This is also due to the fact that under Kumārajīva there were so many intellectual people who were learned in Chinese traditional culture such as Confucian texts of the Analects論語, as well as the Zhuangzi莊子, the Laozi老子,and the Yijing 易經, the Book of Change. These people helped him torevise, edit and smooth the translations.

27.New Terminology:Kumārajīva,assisted by his eminent Chinese disciples, createdmany new tranions of names and Buddhist technical terms and utilized interpolated glosses which became the standard terminologies in Chinese Buddhism.

28.For Instance, tathatā was translated as benwu 本無in Lokak?ema’s translations, and Kumārajīva translated it as zhengru 如, 如如, 真如. The first translation, benwu本無, is heavily coloured by Daoist ideas and thought, but it is good to emphasize the empty nature of the term tathatā. While the latter translation, zhengru如, 如如, 真如, is good to avoid the Daoist influence, but it leads the reader to think of tathatā as something real and true, which is not in accordance with the original meaning of tathatā,suchness.

29. This is important because earlier translators either used different Chinese words to express the same Sanskrit terms or used the method of geyi (matching the meaning with Chinese philosophical terms) to render the technical terms which caused confusion anddifficulties in understanding the texts.

Disciples of Kumārajīva

30.Among Kumārajīva’s disciples, there were many eminent monks. The following are some important ones.

Sengqi 僧契 became the Sengzhu 國土僧主, the chief of Buddhist Sangha in the kingdom, which later was named as Sengzheng 僧正;

Sengqian 僧遷 became the manager of clergy affairs (悅眾);

Faqian 法欽 and Huibin 慧斌 became the recorders of Buddhist clergy (僧錄).

31.These were the first government appointed administrators of Buddhist activities in akingdom which became a system for subsequent kingdoms.

32.Amongst the others, Sengrui 僧叡 and Sengzhao 僧肇 are the foremost in Buddhist studies.

33.Sengrui僧叡once studied under Daoan and edited most of Kumārajīva’s translations. He is one of the earliest his torians of Chinese Buddhist thought and critics. He and his disciples concentrated on the study of the Lotus Sūtra and the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvā?a sūtra based on which later two schools came into being.

34.Sengzhao 僧肇 (?-414) was the youngest and the most intelligent amongst Kumārajīva’s disciples. He learned the Confucian classics and Chinese historical books when he was a copyist due to his family’s financial difficulties.

35.Sengzhao僧肇loved the metaphysics of the Laozi and the Zhuangzi. But later when he read the Vimalakīrti Sūtra 《維摩詰經》, he decided to join the Buddhist community.

36.He wrote many works, but the most influential one is the Zhaolun (《肇論》 the treatises of Zhao) which consists of four articles:

(1) On Time 〈物不遷論〉,

(2) On Sunyata 〈不真空論〉,

(3) On Prajna Not Cognizant〈般若無知論〉and

(4) On Nirvā?a Unnameable 〈涅槃無名論〉.

Walter Liebenthal. Chao lun: the treatises of Seng-chao / a translation with introduction, notes, and appendices.Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press; sold by the Oxford University Press, New York,1968.2nd rev. ed. 294.382 S47 c.3

37.Sengzhao’s work itself is a system which synthesized the teachings of the Zhuangzi and the Vimalakīrti Sūtra, and answered some of the important questions raised at the time by both the Buddhists and scholars of the Metaphysical Learning (玄學). His work is a representative of the time which shows the high standard of Buddhist studies and which is also a product of the combination of Chinese and foreign (Buddhist) philosophy.

Other translators in the north

38.Dharmak?ema (曇無讖385-433) is another important translator in the north, who was born in India and entered the monastic community in his early age. He first learned the Hīnayāna teachings and later was converted into Mahāyāna by a Chan master who gave a version ofthe Mahāparinirvā?a-sūtra,No.374 《大般涅槃經》in 40 fascicles written on birch bark.

39.Later Dharmak?ema came to Dunhuang, where was ruled by Juqu Mengxun 沮渠蒙遜 who wasa Buddhist and supported Buddhism in his kingdom.

40.It is said that Dharmak?ema was well versed in magic spellsso Juqu Mengxun respected him as his advisor and kept him in his kingdom without allowing him going anywhere.

41.In the year 421, Juqu MengxuninvitedDharmaksema to translate the Mahāyāna version of the Mahāparinirvā?a Sūtra 《大涅槃經》. This text later gave rise to a great interest amongst Chinese Buddhists and they formed the Nirvā?a group.

42.However,after the translation, Dharmaksema told his collaborators that this version was not complete so he went back to seek other part of the sūtra.

43.But the king, Juqu Mengxun, suspected that Dharmak?ema wanted to escape and help others since other rulers of the north also expressed their wish to obtain the magician monk. So Juqu Mengxun sent people and got Dharmak?ema killed on his way for fear that he might help others.

44.Apart from the above, some of the important translations of Dharmak?ema are as follows:

Buddhacarita 《佛所行讚》 by A?vaghosa.

Karu?āpu??arīka-sūtra《悲華經》

Suvarnaprabhāsa-sūtra《金光明經》.

45.Buddhayasas was from Kashmir and came to Changan in order to see Kumārajīva. The most important translation done by him is the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya,which became the important text.

Accordingto Ren Jiyu’s History of Chinese Buddhism volume 2, 《中國佛教史》第二冊。

兩晉十六國譯經Translationof Buddhist Texts

Buddhist Development in the south

1.After the establishment of the Eastern Jin, the thought and tradition of Western Jincontinued as most of the noble families flew to the south for a peaceful life. This is seen in the following aspects.

2.First,they continued the study of the School of Metaphysics(Xuanxue 玄學)which focused on the Laozi 老子and the Zhuangzi 莊子and the Daoist practice of longevity and nourishing the spirit were widely accepted in the society.

3.Second,the study of Buddhist prajñā teaching with focus on ontology became the main current of thought in the society and attracted many literati who came to study under eminent monks such as Huiyuanetc. As a result, Buddhism flourished in the south.

4.Lushan 廬山and Jiankang 建康became the centres of Buddhist learning and activities. Eminent Buddhist monks such as Huiyuan, Buddhabhadra, Daosheng,Faxian, Gu?abhadra and Paramārtha arose.

The imperial familyand Buddhism

1.Almost all the emperors of Eastern Jin believed and supported Buddhism in various ways.Some of them had personal contact with Buddhist monks and even invited them to the court to deliver lectures.

2.Emperor Mingdi(明帝 322-325) even made Buddhist paintings himself.Emperor Yuandi 元帝invited Daoqian 道潛into his palace to deliver talks on Buddhism and emperor Aidi 哀帝 again invited the same Buddhist monk to explain the Prajñāpāramitā sūtra.

3.Emperor Jian Wendi 簡文帝 is said to be an expert on metaphysics and attended the lectures on the Fangguang Jing 放光經delivered by Fatai 法汰 in the imperial monastery named Waguan Si 瓦官寺built by Shi Huili 釋慧力in the mid years of Jin Yonghe永和 (345-356).

4.XiaoWudi (孝武帝452-464 in power) among all Eastern Jin Emperor scan be said the real believer of Buddhism. He built a monastery within the imperial court and asked monks to live in. He also allowed monks and nuns to attend official meetings.

5.Therefore,ministers like Wang Ya 王雅 and Xu Rong許榮 admonished him but he didnot listen.

6.Emperor Gundi 恭帝 also believed in Buddhism and got a Buddha statue made and sent it to the monastery Waguan Si 瓦官寺.

7.During Eastern Jin, the emperors had no real power, but it was held in a few influentialclans who also supported Buddhism. They (其中王導、王敦、瘐亮、謝安、謝石、郗超、謝琨、桓彝、周嵩、王恭等)also had close connection with the famous Buddhist monks at the time. Their sons and other literati studied under Buddhist monks and even became followers.

8.The most famous literati were Sun Chuo(孫綽320-377) and Xi Chao(郗超).

9.Sun Chuo 孫綽wrote the essay Daoxianlun 〈道賢論〉(The Sages ofthe Way) in which he compared Dharmarak?a,Boyuan 帛遠 and Zhidun 支遁etc.,with the “seven sages of the bamboo grove” and praised them.

10.He again in his essay Mingde Samen Timu 〈名德沙門題目〉(Virtuous Sramans) discussed the famous monks such as Daoan 道安, Fatai 法汰and Zhimindu支湣度 according to the standard of the famous literati of metaphysics.

11.In his extant essay Yudaolun 〈喻道論〉, Sun Chuo孫綽described the Buddha by using the Daoist terms as “the embodiment of the way”體道者 that “he does nothing since he is empty and spontaneous, but he can do anything since he can manifest everything.” 《弘明集》卷3：「應感順通，無為而無不為者也。」(CBETA,T52, no. 2102, p. 16, b19-20)

12.Thus in Sun Chuo’s deion, one finds Mahāyāna teaching of the dharma body(dharmakāya) and the body of manifestation (nirmā?akāya) in Daoist garb.Particularly he declared that “Zhou and Confucius are the same as the Buddha and the Buddha is the same as the Zhou and Confucius.” 「周孔即佛，佛即周孔」(《弘明集》卷3) Thus he started the thought that Confucianism and Buddhism are the same. (Here Zhou means Zhougong who is an ancient person considered as sage)

13.Xi Chao (郗超) was a minister and discussed Prajñā studies with Fatai and Zhidun so that he was known as the eminent.

14. He wrote an essay entitled“Essentials of Dharma” 〈奉法要〉 which is an important document and in which a typical Eastern Jin literati’s understanding of Buddhism is found.

15.In his work, Xi Chao advocated using the Buddhist five precepts to control the physical body and using the ten whole some deeds to prevent the mind being corrupted.

16.Xi Chao’sunderstanding of the Prajñā studiesis: the emptiness discussed in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras cannot be understood as practicing the emptiness within (the realm of) emptiness.

17. He said: “Emptiness is an expression ‘having forgotten all feelings’; it is not a term for (a space to dwell in like) an office or a house…… ‘being and non-being’ issue from the heart but not attached to the things of outer world.” Therefore, “it is not necessary to extinguish‘being’ first in order to attain ‘non-being’.”

18.This is what later people called the “school of non-being” in the six Prajñāschools.

Eminent monks

Huiyuan 慧遠(334-416)

1.Huiyuan(334-416) was born into a Confucian family in present Shanxi. At the age of thirteen, he together with his uncle came to Luoyang and studied and well versed in Confucian texts as well as the Laoziand the Zhuanzi. But unfortunately he met a time of chaos which disturbed his study. 僧祐撰《出三藏記集．慧遠法師傳》「博綜六經尤善老莊。」

Buddhist Master Huiyuan

1.However,upon hearing the name of Daoan 道安,the eminent teacher, he came and studied under him in Hengshan in 354. Then Huiyuan gave up Confucian and Daoist studies, but he still used their terms to explain Buddhist meanings.

2.In 378, when Huiyuan was studying under Daoan in Xiangyang, Fujian sent an army to the place and defeated the city. Just before war, Huiyuan was sent out by Daoan to south.

3.In 381, Huiyuan came to Lushan 盧山and decided to stay there because of the nice and calm atmosphere. Huiyuan stayed in the mountain and organized learning and practising group for the rest of his life for 30 years.

恭敬经典 南无阿弥陀佛 合十

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